Shark cartilage is obtained from the cartilage of mainly two shark species. It has been promoted as an over-the-counter supplement for a variety of diseases including cancer. Its use as an anti-cancer remedy was based on the misconception that sharks cannot get cancer. Some in vitro and animal research suggested that shark cartilage has anti-angiogenic and cytotoxic effects.

Hypnotherapy is a procedure with which behaviour, cognition and affective patterns are influenced by means of hypnosis and the shift in consciousness it induces. This makes it possible to restructure distressing events and perceptions while supporting the biological changes needed for healing processes. Hypnosis has been suggested to be a useful adjunct for pain reduction in cancer patients. Hypnosedation is sometimes chosen by patients as an alternative to sedation/anaesthesia during cancer surgery. In addition, it is used for anxiety, insomnia, pain management and stress-related illnesses.

Music intervention includes music therapy and music medicine. Music therapy is an established healthcare profession that uses music to address physical, emotional, cognitive, and social needs. The interventions used include playing instruments, vocal and instrumental improvisation, singing, composing/song writing, music-guided imagery, and music listening. Music medicine is different, defined as listening to pre-recorded music offered by medical staff. It has been suggested that music interventions can promote wellbeing, stress management, pain alleviation, emotional expression, memory enhancement, improved communication and physical rehabilitation.

Therapeutic Touch (TT) is a type of hand-mediated “energy healing” technique. It has been proposed that TT can support people with cancer in managing physical and emotional symptoms including anxiety, stress, pain and fatigue.

Garlic (Allium sativum) is a bulbous plant from the onion family which is widely used as food seasoning. It has also been used as a traditional medicine. Garlic is sometimes recommended for cancer prevention based on observational population studies assessing garlic intake and risk of cancer and on studies indicating beneficial effects on processes such as activation of carcinogenic substances, cell proliferation and apoptosis (cell death).

Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) therapy involves sequential tensing and relaxation of major skeletal muscle groups and aims to reduce feelings of tension, to lower perceived stress, and to induce relaxation. PMR is purported to decrease the arousal of the autonomic and central nervous system and to increase parasympathetic activity. Two systematic reviews (SRs) published since 2019 are included in this summary. One included 12 randomised controlled trials (RCTs) with 1147 participants and assessed a range of outcomes, the other one investigated PMR for preventing and alleviating chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and included six RCTs with 288 participants. An additional 25 randomised and non-randomized controlled clinical trials (RCTs and CCTs) were also reviewed for this summary.

The macrobiotic diet is essentially a specific vegetarian form of nutrition and life-style. A typical macrobiotic diet would consist mainly of whole grains, cereals and cooked vegetables. Some types of fish are allowed but only in moderation. Popularised in the 1970s by Michio Kushi, it is now often promoted for the prevention and treatment of cancer.

PC-SPES, PC-HOPE, PC-CARE and PC-PLUS are herbal supplements which have been marketed for the promoted for prostate health and treatment of prostate cancer. PC-SPES, the original product consisting of a combination of eight herbs, is no longer available. It was recalled by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2002 due to concerns over quality control and reported contamination with prescription drugs. Newer products including similar herbs produced under improved conditions to avoid contamination include PC-HOPE, PC-CARE and PC-PLUS.

Reflexology is a supportive treatment modality employing manual pressure to specific areas of the body, usually the feet (occasionally the hands), which are thought to correspond to internal organs. Reflexologists suggest that by palpating the feet they can influence specific organ functions, reduce stress, eliminate toxins, rebalance the body’s energy, improve circulation, or promote metabolic homoeostasis.

Autogenic therapy refers to a particular technique of mental exercises involving relaxation and autosuggestion, which aims to teach individuals to switch off the fight/flight/fight stress response at will.